Spatial Inequalities in Banking Access: Evidence from Romania
Isabelle Margareta OPREA*1, 2, Ana-Maria PECA (OPREA)1, 2, Maria-Magdolna MACULA1, 2
* Corresponding author
1 Romanian Academy, School of Advanced Studies of the Romanian Academy (SCOSSAR), Doctoral School of Economic Sciences, Bucharest, ROMANIA
2 National Institute for Economic Research “Costin C. Kirițescu”, Institute of Economic Forecasting, Bucharest, ROMANIA
E-mail: isabelle-margareta.oprea@ince.ro; ORCID: 0009-0007-0647-8709
E-mail: ana-maria.peca@ince.ro; ORCID: 0009-0008-5689-7167
E-mail: magdamacula@gmail.com; ORCID: 0009-0004-0337-2595
Pages: 63-82. DOI: 10.24193/JSSP.2026.1.05
Received: 24 March 2026
Received in revised form: 09 June 2026
Accepted for publication: 25 June 2026
Available online: 30 June 2026
Cite: Oprea I. M., Peca (Oprea) A.-M., Macula M.-M. (2026), Spatial Inequalities in Banking Access: Evidence from Romania. Journal of Settlements and Spatial Planning, 17(1), 63-82. DOI: 10.24193/JSSP.2026.1.05
Abstract. Financial inclusion in Romania expanded as reflected in the rising share of the adult population holding a bank account, which increased from 58.5% in 2017 to around 80% by 2026. However, these gains are not spatially uniform and the territorial distribution of physical banking infrastructure determines whether formal inclusion translates into effective access to financial services. This paper examines the spatial distribution of bank branches and ATMs in Romania and the resulting territorial inequalities in access between urban and rural areas. Grounded in financial geography, the study combines longitudinal official indicators (FRED/IMF and World Bank, 2004–2024) with GIS-based mapping of georeferenced branch and ATM locations at the local administrative level (LAU2, 2026 snapshot). The results reveal a structural shift in the banking system: the number of commercial bank branches fell by roughly half, from 6,338 in 2008 to 3,314 in 2024, whereas the ATM network remained comparatively stable at around 10,000–11,000 units over the same period. This points to a transition toward cost-efficient, hybrid service delivery. The provision of infrastructure is strongly concentrated in Bucharest–Ilfov and a few major regional centres, while rural and peripheral areas, particularly in the eastern part of the country, remain underserved. These territorial patterns should be interpreted in the context of ongoing banking digitalization. However, because the study does not directly measure digital literacy, connectivity, or the actual use of digital banking services, it cannot determine the extent to which digital channels compensate for declining physical access. The paper contributes a fine-grained, commune-level (LAU2) spatial assessment of banking infrastructure for an emerging European economy, a scale rarely applied beyond a few Western countries, and offers evidence relevant to spatial planning and financial inclusion policy.
K e y w o r d s: banking geography, spatial inequality, financial inclusion, ATM networks, bank branches, bank digitalization, core-periphery patterns